treatment is committed by State officials, including law-enforcement and security agencies and armed forces, as well as non-State actors. 13. Individual, institutional, structural and systemic inequalities, as well as discrimination, marginalisation and other disadvantageous situations place certain persons or groups at heightened risk to acts of torture and other ill-treatment. 14. Significant challenges exist which prevent victims of torture and other ill-treatment from realising the right to redress. Victims are unable to obtain redress because of the lack of comprehensive anti-torture legislation, the existence of laws which legalise or permit torture and other ill-treatment, and the absence of effective policies, programmes, administrative measures and institutional arrangements designed to give effect to this right. Impunity, gaps in the rule of law, corruption, inadequate torture prevention safeguards and a lack of implementation of legislation where it exists, especially in conflict and post-conflict States, present significant obstacles to victims seeking redress. Discrimination, marginalisation and socio-economic challenges as well as institutional and structural inequalities are further systemic barriers to accessing justice for disadvantaged people. 15. Where they exist, redress procedures tend to be time-consuming, bureaucratic, expensive and cumbersome. In many instances the procedures themselves can be an additional barrier to redress and can result in re-traumatisation. Mechanisms for enforcing reparation awards are frequently ineffectual, preventing enforcement of reparation orders by domestic courts as well as decisions of the Commission. Courts and quasi-judicial mechanisms such as NHRIs and Ombudspersons are often under-resourced or lack technical competencies to determine and award effective reparation to victims and/or to enforce their decisions and recommendations. III: The place of the victim in the redress process 16. The right to redress applies to all persons subjected to torture and other ill-treatment without discrimination. Such persons 5